Why Do Red Balls Swing More

The Catacombs or the early Christians under the earth

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*) Rossi, "Roma sotteranea"; Boldetti: "Osservazioni"; Aringhi: "Roma subterranea; Garruci:" Storia dell'arte christiana "; Martigny: Dictionnaire des Antiquités"; Kraus: "Roma Sott." and its ". christl The Art" Richemont "recent studies"; Northkote: "The Roman Catacombs"; Gerbet: "Sketch of the christ of Rome."; Gournerie: "The christl Rome."; Gaume: "Voices from Rome "Wolter," The Roman catacombs; Beller man ". The oldest christl Burials", "Rome," by Wittmer and Molitor, except: "Pilgrimage" ... build

the time when the bloodthirsty Emperor Nero burned Rome and again, he did make himself a palace of unprecedented splendor of its own construction workers were working silently outside the walls of Rome on Build another town in the depths of the earth. This large, quiet city under the ground had their streets, squares, temples, houses, implements, and countless residents, but the roads are narrow, dark, hard tuff in passages cut that branch out in all directions, places and temples are chambers, the houses are tombs, the furniture, are blood vessels and lights and the people are - dead! - The builders of this great mining town are - the first Christians who had to be careful, above all, their loved ones and to give the deposited for the faith brothers and sisters slaughtered an appropriate resting place. -

Just as the faith forbade them in life with the heathen community, so they banned the same faith also bring their dead with them in contact, especially Wherefore, because the pagan burial was associated with idolatrous practices. As once the Jews, God's chosen people, the Graves of their deceased kept holy as the patriarchs Abraham, Jacob, Joseph their graves only among the faithful chose and how the Divine Savior, after his death on the cross put into a new rock grave: so did the early Christians into a new, specially consecrated grave be laid to rest. The area *) (* That the first Christians used the sand pits and quarries to their graves is evident from their construction and the material in which they were created.) leaving their graves they distinguished wealthy citizens or matrons of Rome to their farms outside the city walls. - There is built the same even a Memoria, a tomb, and allowed that one in the same sacred and the bodies of martyrs and other Christians secluded lay down to rest. Thus arose the christ. Cemeteries, "cemeteries" later "Catacombs" is named. - The early Christians called their cemeteries Coemeterium "sleeping place" because they considered the death only for a sleep until the Day of Resurrection, according to the words of Jesus in John 11, 11 and Luke 8:00, 52

corresponded to the number of cemeteries in the number of parishes "Tituli referred, of which there were initially seven. In 1996, the number of Christians have already become so great that St. Pope Evaristus parishes was set to 26, and the result was so with growth of Christianity 26 large cemeteries or catacombs, where another 14 joined smaller. - They got their name after the parish, but either by those who founded it, so Coemeterium S. Domitilla, S. Lucina, S. Aproniani etc., or after the famous martyrs who were buried there, such BS Pancratii , p. Calepodii, p. Agnetis, or those which they extended, or restored, such BS Callisti, S. Julii etc.

Those who under the earth, to protect them from desecration, these cemeteries produced and the dead is buried, were the gravediggers, Tombs called. - They formed a brotherhood, were equipped for their sacrificial, serious professionals through a kind of church consecration or blessing, and were under the supervision of the priests and deacons. - Business or Office of the fossores inherited from father to son and her life was a life of faith, love, sacrifice and beeständiger risk. In every corpse they saw the body of the Lord, like him, would rise and a brother, whom she had with the utmost reverence and care beds to rest. Wherefore they were digging under ground, in the dark of night, the light of a lamp, therefore they are subjected to the arduous work on programs and courses in the walls of the same Graves on graves in the hard tuff undermine; therefore she searched among the greatest difficulties and dangers of the bodies of their brothers from the hands of the executioner, to the fury of the people who guard the soldiers, from the depths of the river, from the pools of blood from to save the pile and coal, to buy, and to ask them secretly, sometimes en masse, with all precautions to prevent hostile eye spy the sanctuary to bring in the cemeteries to safety.

happy they brought the bodies into the earth, then they washed them clean of dust and blood, wrapped in white cloth, often with rich fabrics, doused them with balm or sprinkled it with fragrant flowers and herbs and put them in prayer in their resting place, down in an attached in the wall grave, which they closed quickly with a marble slab or brick to pre-empt all harmful fumes. On the marble slab or the whitewashed stones, which closed the grave, carved or wrote "the Clown", "gravediggers" soon a longer or shorter inscription, now only a name and comforting in pace "in peace", they soon recorded on a palm, a dove, an anchor, etc., all significant characters.

The style of these inscriptions is often flawed, as place vixit: bixit instead of menses: messes, instead quae: que, the drawings reflect often of little exercise. Letters and characters are repeatedly scrawled with a pointed tool into the mortar. The grave-diggers were not even men of science and art, usually out of the common registry, but full of faith and holy love. But very often it is also beautiful and correctly written grave and writings on the tombs and the walls and ceilings of Grakammern pictures and paintings, which show great artistic talent of its maker. -

Some graves have no inscription, it was missing at the time or the customer to call them; others are sealed with marble slabs of pagan inscription. Where this is the case, the plate is either glossed over or vice versa. The gravediggers were often those marble slabs, where they found the same level in order to quickly close a grave can.

As I said, the graves were placed in the wall, often two to three to six on each other.

(See Figure) A grave with a corpse was Loculus "small town", there were but two or three bodies in it, it was said Bisomus, Trisomus. Often lay in a tomb, the remains of many martyrs. They were collected and buried reverently and simply reads: "Ruffinus and one hundred and fifty martyrs", "Marcella and one hundred and fifty martyrs", has no other ornaments than the trophy, "the palm".

goods filled the walls of a corridor with graves, then dug a new and buried with the excavated earth, sometimes the old, or it was created under the old a new course, and so were zahlose corridors and galleries of one, two or three levels, in all directions, as the following illustration.

must have been because the gravediggers or grave-diggers, that number considerably, from the common stand was and her whole life to the service of Church consecrated, so we had to provide for their subsistence and that of their family, hence the Begräbnißkosten were not inconsiderable. In order that the poor in the same manner as the assets were partakers of honor to be buried as her savior in a new grave, the wealthy had to bear the greater part of the cost. It therefore holds sway in the catacombs is no difference between rich and poor. Even if wealthy families built their own grave chamber, so they were not from the general Begränißstätte of believers separated. - It often happened that an entire chamber or a chamber of a whole family was instructed to speak as a family tomb. Such a chamber was called cubicle "bedroom" or Hypogeum "underground chamber.

In most of these chambers, even more often in the aisles, it displays one or more graves that are applied with greater care. A long, coffin-shaped chest is carved on the stone or backed up on the wall and covered up with a more or less strong marble top. The niche, which spans the grave is a flat semi-circular or curved bow was then Arcosolium.

This Arcosolia or vaulted grave monuments were able to hold two to three and four corpses. Most graves are holy martyrs.

from the above you can see what an important, difficult and perilous profession of a fossores or grave-diggers in the old church. Under the earth by the light of the lamp, they built, always surrounded by constant night and humid modern Santander air, the Christian cemeteries of Rome, hollowed out from the graves, the bodies laid to rest, furnished the tombs with inscriptions, painted the walls and ceiling with pictures and symbolic character, and so was in their hands the wonderful city of tombs, the unteriridsche Rome. -

In quiet times they were only beschäftiget in the catacombs, but broke from the storms of persecution, hundreds of Christians were often one days slaughtered, then settled's all believers, even the noblest men and matrons, so holy popes and priests, the highest honor to assist them and to bring the corpses in the catacombs and buried there. Based on the above, the name fossores "Clown" a badge of honor in the old church. Here the inscription on the tomb of a fossores:

fossores IN FELIX P.

Felis, the grave-digger in peace.

SERGIVS ET IVNIVS fossores

BNM IN PACE Bisom.

Sergius and Junius, sexton well deserved, in peace,

in the same grave.

The following figure shows such Fossor from the catacomb of S. Callisto.

The catacombs were not only cemeteries, fields of God, they served another purpose too. Most cemeteries were formed in the resting place of a famous martyr. The result was the tomb of St. Peter Cömeterium the Vatican, where the first successor of St.. Apostle buried, so the grave of St. Apostle Paul S. Pauli Apostoli in the Cömeterium praedio S. Lucina, so the grave of the holy martyrs Nereus and Achilleus Domitilla the Cömeterium S.

etc. The graves of these holy Marty was now in the earliest times of Christianity, the point of union the faithful. At her death, which one was called Dies natalis 'birthday', because death for them as it were the birth of the sky, beginning a new life was blessed, the faithful gathered with their priests in the underground tomb. One thought here is the suffering and death of the martyr, read the document *) (* It was in the first Christian Services set up, which had to record the proceedings and the verdict of the court against the Martyrs and the circumstances of their martyrdom and their death, as already said) his martyrdom to emulation of those still alive, they prayed, sang hymns;. celebrated the sacred mysteries on the tomb of the martyr and enjoyed last Holy Communion. - A similar ceremony was held at the funeral of their dead and ordinary days of death. The surviving family members united under greater or lesser participation of the community near the grave of the deceased to witness the most sacred secrets and keep the Lord's Supper as a witness and an expression of continued faith and communion of love with it. In the holy sacrifice of the deceased was called by memento and thought his name, and offered up a special offering. Spake the doctor of the church Tertullian at the end of the second century, a spouse with the words: "You keep him her (your wife) is of even more sacred love, because they have annulled is with God, you pray for their minds, and to exhort them to confess bring the annual offerings dar. "*) (* De cart regarded c. 11) These offerings of St. John Chrysostom as alms, making it the dead... honorable .**) (** Hom. 61 in Joann. This is also the source of the victim's body in the Ganges worship.)

addition to this celebration, which was celebrated every year on both the days of death of the Holy. martyrs and the faithful, existed in the old church is another custom, had to serve what the catacombs. These are the agape love feast "in honor of the holy martyrs and other deceased who were held near the tombs. The solemn commemoration of the dead members of one family had to unite those left behind to the more intimate love. Thus held for even the Christian right with it that he can combine the prayers for the departed and the memory of it with nothing else better and more dignified than the works of love and benevolence. Therefore, the Christian victims of the united Begräbnißtagen and andem anniversary of the death of their loved ones not only blood relatives but also other members of the community and especially the poor. But the martyrs were often such a love feast in the cemeteries or in the vicinity of their graves on the anniversary (This natalis) of her death. Asset-Christians brought food: fruit, pastries, fish and meat dishes along with wine mixed with water and invited the poor and those who had nothing, a feast for. The priest, often the bishop himself, initiated the meal. All off together while singing the divine praise and mixed it with a devout prayer, tears and sighs .*) (* Theodoret.. Evang veritatis lib VIII)

to maintain proper order, the love feast, was located at Manchester Cömeterium chamber, or Schola Triclinium called, where the banquet was gathered. At the entrance to the Cömeterium S. Domitilla, which was found in 1865 under a hill and bloslegte is such a room you can.

b is the chamber of the tomb guards;
a the entrance of the Cömeterium;
c Triclinium the meeting or for a lover.


The reason for these love-feasts in the burial grounds are the Doctors of the Church of Origen when he wrote: "We invite the poor and needy in to a funeral feast, that so our celebration to commemorate the peace of the soul of the deceased, we to a god but pleasant odor will ."**) (** Lib 3 John) And St John Chrysostom beantowrtet the question "why do you call out for the funeral of the Priests and the poor together ": that is:"... So that the dead rest in peace and get a merciful sentence "*) (* Hom 31 in Mt See also Krull Christl archeology etc. Vol II)

.. continuation

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actual tomb of the Apostle Peter

More than three hundred years rested the body of the apostles, with short interruptions in the Memoria the Pope Anakletus on Vatican hill, surrounded by the coffins his immediate successors down to Zepherinus and a large number of martyrs. After defeated by Emperor Constantine paganism and the cross was erected on the Capitol, this emperor built around the year 315 of the Memoria of St. Prince of the Apostles a magnificent church. To 96 columns of precious marble rested the gilded roof. The walls were covered with the most artistic Musivbildern. The altar of the Confessio of St. Apostle was übeschattet by a silver canopy, which rested on four Pophyrsäulen. Floated down from the canopy of golden chains the dove from the finest gold, in which the Blessed Sacrament was kept. - At the entrance to the Confessio hung a golden chandelier, 31 pounds, 50 flames poured from the finest spikenard from their light. Under the altar is the grave with the coffin chamber was Prince of the Apostles. The lid of the coffin of the Emperor Constantine adorned with a cross made of pure gold, 150 pounds. The grave chamber was covered with marble round vaulted room. Only on the ceiling of the vault, an opening was attached, by which one could look down into the tomb and objects in order to dedicate them to settle on the coffin. Especially there were tapes or cloths that you enclosed in capsules through the opening in the vault hung down, after some time out and took revered as sacred relics. - (See illustration of the old church);
for the grave of the Holy Apostles continually welled Christians in all ages from around the world to pray there, and the unity of their faith and the faith of the holy Roman Catholic, to be revealed based on Peter Church. Hither "ad Limina Apostolorum * (* The pilgrims were wont to kiss the doorsteps of the church, or at least to touch his hand and then kiss her hand. Therefore," a pilgrimage to the doorsteps of the Apostles ", the term ad Limina Apostolorum.)
was about 1200 years, the magnificent Basilica of St.. Peter on the Vatican. She had survived the terrible storms of the Great Migration, in the devastation of Rome by the Vandals she was spared, she survived the conquest of the city by the Lombards, even the flames that incinerated the palaces of the city and its circus and theater, and laid waste to hurt them, but she was - has become dilapidated.
conceived as Pope Nicholas V (1447) the decision to build a new church in its place. But it was Pope Julius II laid the foundation stone in 1506 as new mines, the most beautiful and largest in the world. Unfortunately, the production of the sacred foundations of the Vatican Cömeterium, the resting place of a lot of martyrs from the apostolic period, largely destroyed. - The whole Catholic Christianity contributed to the cost of construction, which lasted more than 100 years, 200 571 357 Mark (Two hundred million and a half) Mark required and directed by the greatest architects of the period and finally completed.


What I say now of the St. Peter Church, the most beautiful and largest temple in the world? How am I to the incomparable harmony of great relationships, their poignant grandeur, the art and beauty of their inimitable mosaic images, their countless statues of marble, the glitter of gold, which dazzles the eye and the splendor that manifests itself everywhere to describe? Even the free space in front of St. Peter's makes the pilgrim who visits the grave of the Prince of the Apostles, the deepest impression. 284 columns and 88 form three pillars in an oval shape, then pull halls, in the middle can easily move two cars side by side. In the halls of 162 statues are of white marble. Five doors lead into the church. Above the entrance, in the middle, there is the Loggia, where the coronation of the newly elected pope is taking place and on Maundy Thursday and Easter, the pope urbi et orbi "of the city and the earth", in the presence often issued by hundreds of thousands of the blessing. Of the five gates of the Church of the extreme right is walled up, and only in a jubilee of the Pope solemnly opened. -


First of all, the main gates we in the rich marble floor a round plate of porphyry. On this record, the Popes used to standing with the German emperors to negotiate - Pope Pius IX. leaving there in our own days of high festivals to protest against the injustice of the robbery of the Papal States. -
On the last of the pillars on which rests the vast vault of the church, see and worshiped the Broncestatue of St. Peter . The Übelieferung says that Pope Leo I the Great (440), this statue from the Capitoline Jupiter Statue of metals can be manufactured. - It is interesting to Christians because of their dignified appearance and her age and the art lovers as a superb product of early Christian Art. (See Figure)
rises in the main vessels, the 100 feet high, richly decorated with gold and precious stone altar, which is that of the old church included. Four twisted columns of gilt bronze bear the canopy. On the altar, only the Holy Father celebrated the Holy Sacrifice. - Raise the main one, so the view swings up to the mighty surprised dome, the highest in the world. Four massive pillars on which area you could build a small church wearing their decorated with beautiful mosaic walls and pictures about the strained arch. Over the crossing in six foot high mosaic are written around the words "Tu es Petrus et super hanc ecclesiam meam et Petram aedificabo portae Inferi non praevalebunt adversus eam." "You are Peter and upon this rock I will build my church and the gates of hell shall not prevail."
Below the dome, the Confessio of St.. Peter. Before the high altar, two marble staircases leading down to the grave of the Prince of the Apostles in the coffin, a part of the remains of St. Paul the Apostle rests. Below, one sees a door of gilded metals with the busts of the two St. Apostles. It closes with an affected old mosaic images niche in which the bones of the holy apostles are buried. 59 lamps burn continually here and increase the solemnity of this holy place. -
if you step back up in the church and goes behind the high altar, one sees in a splendid shrine of gilt bronze the chair of St. Peter. Four gigantic figures, also in bronze, the four Church Fathers, Augustine, Ambrose, Athanasius and Chrysostom imagining him wearing. This chair is the same, which the senator Pudens to St. Apostle Peter gave when he received him in his house and St.. Baptism and his family received from him. - The chair itself is covered in wood and all in ivory. On its two sides are the rings to wear it by means of rods can be plugged. This proves that he was a curule chair, that is in the Senate * (* For Senate included the noblest Romans. ) the senators served if they went to the high council. - It can be divided into two parts, and its front is ivory with raised images of excellent art and decorations of the purest gold adorned .* (* Cardinal Wiseman "Abhandlungen Band III Gerbet" Christian Rome "Volume I. . )
sat on the chair so the hl. Peter, if he exercised as head of the Church Magisterium, and from that circumstance does it come that the designation "apostolic chair" the supreme Magisterium and the highest spiritual jurisdiction of the Pope does * (* The Church celebrates feast of the Chair of Peter in Rome on 18 January. )
Thus, for Rome by the establishment of the chair of St.. Peter, the first and principal church in the world, the seat of the head thereof, and the faithful guardian of the holy apostolic tradition. Also always thought the Roman Christians of the great benefits and blessings through which they become partakers of the two holy apostles and kept both as their spiritual fathers, teachers, and enlightenment in the highest veneration. They sought the places where they stayed where they taught, where they baptized, the Holy. Victims celebrated, where they have suffered and died, keep the memory of posterity, gathered at their graves and were particularly of their days of death great love feast (agape), where they bedieten is precious drinking vessels of glass, the floor with various paintings on gold ground, especially with the pictures of the Holy Apostles, adorned were. Such gold glasses were found in many ancient Christian cemeteries. On one of these gold glasses you can see both Acts together, a crown upon their heads. (See illustrations thereof.)
On another gold glass you can see them standing between them a column with the monogram of Christ. The appropriate column is the most glorious of the apostles, Peter and Paul, founded, great, venerable, and all known church in Rome ** (. ** words of the martyr St. Irenaeus, bishop of Lyons, +202) says of St. Paul: "she is a pillar and ground of the truth. " (I Tim. 2, 15) sees
Another time we mapped the two apostles in the midst of the Blessed Virgin Mary.
In Cömeterium St. Domitilla, whose emergence hinanreicht up to the time of the Apostles found a very nice bronze medal with the portraits of the healing. Apostles Peter and Paul, Peter, with short curly beard, Paul with a long beard.
Although the first Christians of Rome, the two apostles were in high honor, they always made a definite difference between them. Only Peter was revered by them as the founder and actual founder of the Roman Church, as the first bishop of Rome , and regarded as the head of the whole Church. Usually takes Peter goes to various representations of the place of honor, and is on the right. Peter often sits on a kind of throne, while the seat Pauli is an ordinary chair. - Especially, it is the priority (plan), through which one Peter Paul and differed from those opposed this. This is the name of St.. Pope Leo I (440), both apostles and fathers Pastors of the city of Rome adds, however, to: Head of the (Christian) world Rome was the chair of St.. Peter has become. - And in fact the first Christians believed always, Peter is the head of the Church, Christ had set him the cornerstone of his church, he transferred the supreme authority, entrusted to him the infallible Magisterium. - As witnessed by several images, which were found in the Roman cemeteries. -
In a glass bowl, Patena called vitrea on which sets the deacon or priest after Mass the bishop, the consecrated bread, namely the high holy communion wafers, to distribute it among the faithful in the parishes of the city, is Christ on a mountain and goes to Peter, a role on which we read the words: "The Lord is the law." But Peter accepts the role, as a sign of reverence, in the folds of his robe against. Now just so used to the Roman governor of their instruction from the hands of the Kaiser roll receive. It is thus here Petri appointment as Vicar of Christ on earth, and the ceremonial handover of governmental power in the church, which is symbolized in the mountains as well as in a fruit-laden palm tree, as shown. In the lower part of the double image appears as the divine Christ Lamb on Mount Sion, poured from where the four evangelical currents, while the lambs (the believers) look up to him. Peter wears a cross on the shoulder, keep the fathers of the symbols of power and domination. But in order to indicate that this power to Peter and not the other apostles to come, it is opposed by Paul. Two passes of the apostolic preaching of Christ's mission, but only to Peter the full power and authority of the government. A similar representation can be seen on a marble coffin from the Vatican Cömeterium, which is now preserved in the Lateran Museum. Jesus sits in the midst of the apostles in the symbolically represented sky. To Peter, he is a role that receives the same with veiled hands. Opposite him is Paul.
shows even more clearly the belief of early Christians in the primacy of Peter on a beautiful lamp of bronze. The same is in the shape of a ship with unfurled sails. At the keels is Paul, but the rudder deflected Peter. The pole is decorated with a plaque with the Inschift: the Lord is the law. The purpose of this presentation is: "Paul holds sway as the herald of the Gospel in the Church, but the controlling, legislative hand of Peter leads them safely through the stormy ocean to the shore of eternity."



In a gallery of Cömeteriums St. Domitilla shows a picture of how buried here, Elijah, as he propelled his cloak to Elisha to heaven leaves.
The assumption of the mantle of a prophet or teacher was the old man known as a sign of legitimate succession, agency and inheritance of his mind, so also a disciple of the prophets (the shape of the right of the car) surprised the Elisha cries out: "The spirit of Elijah rests on it ! The meaning of this picture, which is also present on early Christian marble coffins, is this:
Elias is the Savior, which transfers starting up at the sky the new Elisha, Peter, his coat and with this his deputy, the governorship, the official and of power in his church so that even the Christian prophets students, believers, amazed confess: "The Spirit of Christ is upon him!"
The whole sum of the prerogatives of the Holy. Peter as head of the church but we see symbolized in those wall paintings and gold glasses, to which latter he is shown the same water Moses with his staff out of the rock hitting. The adjacent single name "Peter" leaves no doubt room.
Like Moses, the leader of the ancient people of Israel, Peter, the leader of the new Israel or the Christian people of God, like Moses, head of the Jewish synagogue, so Peter, the head of the Church of Christ, like Moses, the highest legislature and judges in the old covenant was the the law of God proclaimed, then Peter, the highest teacher the church. - The staff is the symbol of divine omnipotence, but he is in the hands of Moses, Christ and Peter. The Son of God had before this old time bar pass to Moses in the Scripture testifies, "that he was the confidant of his master in the house." (I. Num. 12.7.) Only a short time led Christ during his earthly life, this bar in a visible hand. After his ascension to heaven Peter came to Moses' authority. Him the church was entrusted to him by Christ of the rod. Peter touched with this letter, ie in the divine authority, Christ, the Church of Urfels, "the rock" but, says Paul, "Christ" (I. Cor. 10, 4) and elicits the healing waters of the doctrine and sacraments, in order to clean, clear and true to tell all the people who languish in the wilderness of unbelief and error in this world for truth and grace. So the first Christians sensualizes in an excellent picture of St. Apostle's teaching, priests and pastors violence. - This triple force exerted Peter also from 25 years in Rome. - The city of Rome now, once the center of the pagan world, the capital of Christianity, formerly the headquarters of lies and deceit, is now the center and seat of truth, formerly the seat of the pagan Pontifex Maximus is now the seat of the Christian pontiff, the Pope. - To him that with Rome, the center of truth and Peter, the teacher of the truth in communication, peace is secured. Nice press this thought the following two early Christian writings from grave:

+ EXVPERRANTIA D. XV. KL. SEPT:

HIC EST DEPOSITARY IN PACE ROME; QVAE

BIXIT PM STUDENT CANTEENS III.

. Exuperantia died on the fifteenth day of the Kalends of September, is buried here in the peace of Rome;. She lived about 3 months "

RVTA OMNIBVS SVBDITA ET ATFABI-

LIS BIBET In Nomine PETRI IN PACE.

"Ruta, Allen obsequious and affable, lives in the name of Peter in peace."

We have seen that St. Apostle Peter, 9 years after the death of his divine Master and Lord, under Emperor Claudius in Rome came to pass, there was a Christian community, opened his chair and died of the torture death. This is an undeniable fact. How, then, in an election the realm of legally elected prince as the legitimate successor to the late king in all honors and right its same thing happens, he also attained the highest power to maintain his dignity, to protect its prerogatives and exercise, as the same in a word, his previous king and, as such before the law one and the same person with the deceased - so were the Roman popes, by which legislative elections the episcopal See of Rome ascended as the successor of Peter, also the owner of his dignity, of all his Reche, all his absolute power. - "Peter lives in the popes on his to continue the see of Rome, and he shall preside and preach infallible from his chair (ex cathedra), the true teaching of Christ, because the Holy Spirit is the one who saved him from all error and by he says. " this is aptly expressed in the following, with the chisel in marble buried visual, Cömeterium on Via Labicana . At the top of the chair is the divine dove, the image of the Holy Spirit. The hangings, which he surrounds, points to the high regard in which the See of Peter was the first Christian centuries. The Roman Church is, therefore, as I said, first and foremost. Even St. Bishop and martyr Ignatius, disciple of the Apostle John, calls them "the head of the covenant of love" *) (* Epist. Ad. Rome. C. 1) , ie the whole of Christendom. - From this, wrote the Roman church of St. Irenaeus, bishop and martyr (+ 202): "This church must its powerful precedence for all churches agree " and he gives the reason of which arising, when he writes: "because in it are the apostolic tradition obtained is " **) (** Adv haere L. 3 c. 3) says St. Cyprian, Bishop of Carthage (+ 258) and also martyr of the Lord..." Peter is On the whole Church of the unit due founded, this apostle is the center of the church. Its primacy (primacy), he transferred to the Roman Church, hence the bishop's chair is the same in the See of Peter and the Church of Rome, the first and foremost. * (* De unitate Eccl.)
But is the Church of Rome, the first and foremost, has opened in it the apostles Peter's chair, she has maintained the apostolic tradition always faithful, never had her a Error entry, then us their first believing children, both above and below the earth and those who can use it to give the head and the mother of all churches, stood in the closest connection, the safest clue what they believed in themselves and their fellow have hoped and loved and we are then able to recognize as surely as the Catholic Church at this day which is, as the church of the early centuries.
Among the first Christians, but on the ground probably the most proven tools that men who passed through speech, writing and holy life, the first Christian communities, a lot of infidel converted, and the teaching of Jesus Christ to their defended opponents and enemies. It is called the Apostolic Fathers of the Church because they have not seen the Apostles and runs with them, as Saint. Ignatius, Bishop of Antioch, Clement of Rome, Polycarp, Justin, etc. No less reliable witnesses Doctors of the Church, which, because of their contributions to the church's science and their learning recognized as representatives of the Church's doctrine of the church. They include the holy Bishop Irenaeus, Tertullian in the early years of his conversion, St.. Cyprian, St. Cyril etc., who lived in the first four centuries, cost of spoken and written for the holy faith and unbelief, and Irr-down fighting. Their posthumous writings allow us a clear insight into the religious life of early Christians.
this witness of the early Christians schhließen above the earth at the holy martyrs with their sayings, beliefs and speeches before the judge chairs the Gentiles. In them was fulfilled the word of the Saviour: "If they lead you, and deliver, so Bear in mind not before, which sollet talk to her, but what you will be entered at the same hour, that speak, because you are not to speak, but the Holy Spirit. " promised (Mark 13.11.) The same spirit of truth, which Christ and his church sent and who taught all truth, also spoke of the sacred Martyrs, and their Bekentnisse and speeches before the judge chairs and in the sight of certain death infallible reliable evidence for the teachings of Christianity in the early centuries and the files are on their glorious martyrdom and their Bekentnisse have before the judges of the highest credibility, for there are

1. these martyrs own hand, authentic court records because they were by the judges or governors dictated by their official duties and recorded by the clerk. They include the questions of the judges, the responses of the martyrs and the verdict. The Christians, who love to written messages through the heroic commitment and to have the end of their holy martyrs demanded bought now under the applause of the bishops and with large sum of money these court documents. Sometimes gave the clerk, copies of the logs themselves to purchase, or brought, if they were secret Christians, priests or bishops them as precious gifts. This they completed at the details of passing the torture and death.
2. Very often urged the Christians themselves at great risk in the court room to hear and see what was happening and what has taken others orally or in writing.
3. Sometimes the holy martyrs, written in prison, even a history of sustained Peine and confessions, which were then completed by their friends or confidants. Early on
4. presented to the bishops own reliable secretary or notary, who had faithfully record what daily with the martyrs in the dungeons or going public in the court rooms or on the battlefield. Thus, the St. Pope Clement I of Rome around the year 1991 some notaries appointed for certain districts, this was before Pope Fabian (236) seven subdeacons whose duty it was, inter alia, to review the notes from the notaries acts to correct and then the head submit to the church for review and approval.
5. The biggest storms of persecution, which usually first met the bishops and priests, could not always capture the passion of the martyrs. - Only at a standstill eingetretenem one began to design from the fragments of the court documents or from what was heard from credible and reliable Müännern, a summary of the writing and recording what was generally known. Easily in these files to see what the court records is removed.

They were in this way in the times of the three centuries of persecution of the church created martyrs in the celebration of the death anniversary of a martyr (this natalitius) read to the faithful to encourage perseverance, and at home, they read like the faithful to build on to the beautiful examples of the holy martyrs, and in the days of suffering and sorrow to comfort themselves. From this large-esteem of the holy martyrs of the files can probably assume that one early on made every effort to collect them. However, received over time many lost. The most proven acts can be found in the great works of Bollandus and in the famous works of the Bendiktiners Theodoric Ruinart, which contained confessions in this book and sayings of the holy martyrs are taken, and make claim to full credibility können.Die Holy Church Fathers therefore, and the teachers of the Church from the first four centuries of Christianity and the holy martyrs with their blood were with written confessions, should be the first Christians above ground, that teach us that what they believed, hoped and loved. - But it is time that we descend into the Totengrüfte there and also ask those Christians over here, because the are embedded in the ground to eternal rest, and await the glorious resurrection contrary.

continuation

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The martyrdom of the holy Apostles Peter and Paul

After 9 months hard labor for two apostles were sentenced under the consuls Lucius and Caius Julius Rufus Fontejus Capito to death. Peter because he was not a Roman citizen, was previously scourged and then on to his fellow sufferers Paul 29th June 67 to Christ through the gate Ostiense removed to the place. When they came to the place where today the Holy Trinity Chapel (S. Pietro e Paolo separati) is, they were separated by the guard. They embraced each other after the fashion of the first Chistes for the last time and said goodbye. St. Apostle Paul was three milestones, ie, an hour to run to the place ad aquas Salvia . On the way, he converted three soldiers Acestus, Megistus and Longinus. They asked him who was King because of that he love so much that he died with such joy for him? He then taught them to know Jesus Christ and took it to the Christian faith. He also appeared in the way of his student Plautilla, which recommended, crying his prayers. He asked her for her veil, she wore on her head, can be connected to the execution so that the eyes, and promised her the same after his death to reset again. Indeed, he seemed to her immediately after death and brought back her veil, which was splattered with his blood. - Arrived at the point of

Hinirichtung, he had to stay a while. Only one shows those narrow space under the second of the three churches that are here. Then he was tied to a marble pillar and beheaded. His last words were: "Lord Jesus, into thy hands I commend my spirit." There, where his head was sprung, three sources, all of which the Church tre Fontane is built, and in which the column exists is bound to which the apostle was beheaded.

Sts. Apostle Peter was, after the St.. Paul said goodbye, out over the Tiber and to the level of the mountain Janiculus towed. Before he reached the Leidensort, he lost his foot from the binding, which concealed the wound, which caused him the chain. In memory built the Early Christians here, an oratorio, now occupies the same small church della Fasciola .

It was a pious custom of the early Christians, the smallest events in the life of the two holy apostles kept the memory of posterity. They followed the apostles, as it step by step and build on all seats, which had an apostolic memory, oratories or chapels, which were later converted into many magnificent churches.

When St.. Peter had arrived on the mountain, was prepared for him the cross on which he should like his divine master die. - The saint, however, was unworthy to die in the same position on the cross, like Jesus, and therefore demanded to be crucified with his head bowed to the ground. So he died, praising God and praising surrounded by soldiers, executioners and pious women. The hl. Anastasia and Asilissa, two Roman matrons wanted the blood of St. Apostle dry up with scarves, they were seized, burned with torches and beheaded.

on the site of the crucifixion is now the church of S. Pietro in Montorio . The first construction was the first Christian emperor Constantine. In the courtyard of the adjoining convent of the Franciscan monks, a beautiful circular temple is just over the martyrdom of St. office. Apostle. Marble steps, and 16 granite pillars surrounding him in a circle. In the lower chamber of the same means a Hole in the ground the place where the cross was erected. -

The chains, bound by what the Apostle Peter was, came into possession of devout Christians who kept them secret until the time of Pope Alexander I (109 AD) were known. - The fact that hl. Pope Prefect of Rome, called Hermes, had converted with his whole family and many other nations to faith in Christ, he was thrown into prison, where he won the tribune Quirinus and his daughter Balbina also for Christ. Since the same had been cured by the Pope Alexander from illness and St. Had received baptism, they ceased not to kiss in gratitude and reverence his chains. That their referring said the St. Pope to her: "Leave off, daughter to kiss the shackles and looking rather the chains of the apostles to locate, which thou shalt worship and cover with your kisses." God rewarded her zealous investigating and found they had the chains of the Apostle. She gave the same, as the tradition reports, the noble matron Theodora, the sister of St. Francis. Hermes, which on the slope of the Esquiline hill, built an oratory and the chains deposited there themselves.

About the year 439 pilgrimage ended the Empress Eudoxia, wife of the Emperor Theodosius to Jerusalem to venerate the holy places, and received from the bishop Juvenal the two chains to the present, which by order of King Herod, St. St. Peter chained up in gaol was, and what did get too pious Christians in their possession. - The Empress remained one of the chains to the other but they sent their daughter Eudoxia, the wife of Emperor Valentinian III. to Rome. This she showed the then Pope Sixtus III. (432-440), and when that did it compare with the other chains that Peter was in Rome, which combined the two beautifully with a chain, as they had been made from the same forge. - Eudoxia built then the oratorio Theodora of the current church in which they deposited the holy chains. - Highly revered From then on were the same, and were by touching it cured many sick suddenly. It also maintains Feilspähne the chains in the cross key or trap and take the neck. St. Pope Gregory the Great (590) did so several gifts, which were many miraculous healings. - The rings of the chains of old form, and at each end, a Charnier, which they put around his neck .*

is also the chains, which (* The Church celebrates annually on August 1, Sankt Petri chain celebration.) The apostle Paul, worn by the first Christians were preserved with equal care. You are currently in a chapel of the magnificent church of S. Paolo fuori le mura , and consist of elongated poorly forged rings, which indicate a great age. -

the body of St. Francis. Apostle Paul, buried the noble and pious matron Lucina on her country estate at the Ostiense Road. Lucina was a student of the Holy Apostles, and sought their fortunes with the material needs of the saints to help, she visited and comforted the captives and took care of the burials of the holy martyrs. Over the tomb of St. Apostle was built in an oratorio, was resting under the altar during the three centuries of persecution in their own grave in a coffin of marble chamber of the body of the Saint. Apostle, and was around his tomb, over time a large amount of holy martyrs and separated Christians buried. Thus was born the Cömeterium S. Pauli Apostoli in Lucina praedio .

After the church was finally peace, the Emperor Constantine made at the request of Pope Sylvester (314), a magnificent basilica (church) built over the grave of the apostle. The Emperors Valentinian, Theodosius and Arcadius could tear down the same 336 back and perform in their place another building of great size and wonderful glory. This basilica was divided by 80 precious marble columns in five ships. (See Figure). The walls were (composed Pictures of small colored polished stones) with the most beautiful mosaic or mosaic images * decorated, covered the ceiling beams of cedar from Lebanon with gold plate. Round the walls, the busts of the popes from Peter to have been attached. Under the high altar, there was the Confessio ** (** The first Christians were like their worship gatherings at the tombs of the Apostles and celebrated martyrs. Over the grave was the altar, and under it in a coffin of stone or marble of the body of the Holy . Was the coffin of the saint in a grave chamber or vault, then the altar stood over the grave, to which one could pass through a staircase. this altar to the tomb of the saint was called Confessio * (* Testimony, too "testimony" or Mamoria "memory") or "confession". Hence it is that has been provided under the main altar of the great churches of Rome there are graves Confessio S. Peter, S. Paul, S. Laurentii. For there are the remains Dejenigen who have Jesus did through their rich, holy lives and martyrdom known and witnessed. Here, in these tombs, the early Christians prayed inbrünstg the time of persecution to the grace of a steadfast Bekentnisses their faith, where they celebrated each year the death of the saints come here, they made pilgrimages to call the intercession of the saints) the crypt or. the grave with the coffin of St. Apostle of bronze, in which half of the remains of the Apostle was included. The other half put Pope Sylvester in the year 319 to the bones of St.. Peter, when the Emperor Constantine built over his grave in the Vatican was a magnificent church.

All this glory and splendor on the night of 15-16. July 1823 went up in flames, making the early Christian art are an irreplaceable loss suffered. But given the part, the mosaic images and the high altar, the chamber grave with the coffin of St. Apostle spared the fire. The church was through the efforts of the Popes Leo XII. and Gregory XVI. and by gifts of the faithful of the whole world rebuilt magnificently. (See the picture that the interior shows the same.)

After St. Peter was different on the cross, took his body, so the legend * (* De Waal, Prince of the Apostles Peter resting place) one of his pupils, named Marcellus, down. The body was cleaned of blood, washed, anointed with spices, wrapped in a fresh white robe and a precious carried by torchlight and psalm singing of the accompanying Christians to the grave. Marcellus had at the Cornelian Street, on the slope of the Vatican hill, where already buried a lot of martyrs from the former Nero's persecution were, a family tomb. When you reach it, the body of St. Apostle in a wooden Coffin down, trapped with the same stone in a sarcophagus and buried in the tomb of the Marcellus.

In 68, on 9 June, had the cruel tyrant Nero out of desperation, the sword itself thrust into the throat and the Christians now had some time alone. This rest took advantage of St. Anakletus Pope, whom Peter was ordained a priest, and who now occupied the apostolic chair, to build over the grave of a prince of the apostles or Monumentum Memoria. Based on the Vatican hill, surrounded with a garden of flowers and trees, the front of the monument raised to the inscription of the founder of it. Next was the Triclinium * (* kept in this room the faithful at the death of the deceased death feast.) a chamber for the assembly of believers. From the atrium one entered into the interior, in a grave chamber built of stone, dressed the walls and ceiling with marble and decorated with paintings were. Here stood the sarcophagus or stone coffin with the simple inscription "Simon called Peter" (in Greek capital letters).

In a niche on the wall filled with spikenard burned a lamp. At this grave chamber or crypt of St. Apostle encountered the resting place of his successor, St.. Linus, Cletus, Anacletus, Evaristus, Pius, Anicetus, Soter, Eleutherius and Viktor. Even in the seventh century, was shown to the pilgrims, which the grave of St. Apostles undulated, the coffins of these popes. And in the 17th Century, found there a stone with the simple inscription "Linus", the successor of St.. Peter. - During the St.

. Pope Anacletus the Memoria of St. Peter built, he had the body of the same charge and called for the time being buried at a different place, ad Catacumbas , and keep it. About this time, Christians came from the East, intending to return the bodies of the Holy Apostles in their country where they first established Christian churches and had them set before bishops. - The bodies of Sts. Acts should be witnesses to a certain extent that these communities actually by the holy apostles instituted bishops and their legitimate successors of the Apostles were. - But when the Eastern Christians their right to hl. Leiber wanted to claim that they were dismissed. This would, however, stand out from their claims and now were not secretly in the possession of the St.. Bodies to arrive. And in fact, they already were, as St.. Pope Gregory writes, with the Apostle bodies up to the third milestone, about an hour away on the Appian road leading to southern Italy came as the faithful in Rome learned the robbery happened, pursues the fleeing and forced them to the holy. Bodies to possess. The same was then on the place ad Catacumbas brought back and preserved. Here they remained a year and seven months until the Memoria was prepared in which one wanted to bury their bones. After the work was finally completed, the body of St. Peter then put under solemn hymns and buried the body of St. But Paul was buried in the grave chamber of Lucina in the Ostiense Road.

The bodies of the two holy apostles remained undisturbed now highly revered by the faithful who came to periods of peace in droves to pray there to celebrate the Holy Sacrifice and keep their love feast. But again, the peace of the grave of the two saints to be disturbed. Until now, the Christians protected visit by the law on the inviolability of graves, their cemeteries (cemeteries) freely and bury their dead there, even in times of persecution hiding there and celebrate their worship in secret. But since collapsed under the Emperor Valerian in a terrible persecution.

This enemy Christians issued an edict forbidding Christians give access to the cemeteries. Questions were guards at the entrances to them, to arrest every comer. Now, because the Christians had to fear that pagans in the cemeteries and gain could desecrate them, they brought the bodies of the holy Apostles and hid it again, 3 milestones outside of the city, back to the place ad Catacumbas . This transfer took place on 29 June 258, on the anniversary of the Holy Apostles.

Here they remained until the death of the Emperor Valerian (260), the Persian king took Sapor in a war to kill flayed alive and left. The emperor's son and successor, Gallienus returned the Christians not only their cemeteries, but also recognized the Christian community in Rome as an existing one legal entity to which behufs bury their dead land and property have purchased and whose members are in the graves of their members were allowed to congregate and celebrate their death.

Thus the Christians were allowed to Bodies of the holy apostles to bring back to their former resting place. The Cömeterium ad Catacumbas on the Appian Way, but remained, although the bodies of the holy Apostles there not more rested, but for the Christians prefer holy place. They built an oratory there, visited the same pleasure and buried their dead near the former apostle grave. For example, put the body of the Christians of St.. Sebastian, who died in the last persecution under Diocletian the martyrdom death, at here .* (* According to De Waal, "Prince of the Apostles Peter tomb")

Emperor Constantine was converted into a church, the oratory, which received the name of Basilica of the Holy Apostles. Later had the venerable soft Kiche a new building and the new church was called San Sebastiano fuori le Mura "Saint Sebastian outside the Walls." There is now one of the seven main churches of Rome, and is the target of countless pilgrims who come there, sometimes the grave of St. visit to Sebastian, whose body rests in a beautiful chapel, some of the crypt where the holy apostles bodies rested for a while, to testify to their devotion. Near the high altar, climb 27 steps to the Platonia, a semi-circular chapel down. In the middle of it is a free altar with small windows at the front and back, through which one in the real apostles Crypt can look down, and which is separated by a marble slab in half and so a double grave, the resting place of Peter and Paul, forms. -

From: Upper The first Christians, and under the earth

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The first persecution

already was, as the pagan historian Tacitus reports that the Christian community "to a enormous amount of "grown up, when emperor Nero, who followed the Claudius on the throne, began to persecute the Christians.
This emperor, a monster of humanity, murdering his own mother kill his teacher did, and in beastly lust and all conceivable vices spent his life, fell in 64 mad on the idea to light the city of Rome. The unprecedented conflagration consumed three quarters altogether, seven were horribly destroyed, and only 4 remained intact. Six days and seven nights of fire lasted. From the palace of the cruel tyrant Mecänas from looking at the fire and sang to the sound of the lute the fall of Troy. He was indeed the burned districts to rebuild itself and magnificent a palace of unprecedented splendor, golden House ", produced with theaters, gardens, etc., but he could about all the people of flattery, but do not deceive the danger which threatened him because he is more openly accused of having set fire to the city. In order to avoid the anger of the bitter people, he blamed the fire on the Christians. The pagan historian Tacitus writes: "In order to avert the evil by the rumor, Nero pushed under other than guilty, and exerted the most exquisite punishment to those which the people called Christians." - This was a long time but hated the Gentiles, partly because they are from idolatry and pagan festivals held remote, partly because her virtuous life, the excesses of the nations condemned.
Man was searching now by all sides on the Christians and held it. Loaded with chains, they had to Ridicule and scorn and all kinds of torture can endure. Man pinned the one on the cross, others wrapped it in animal skins and let rip them from dogs, others covered it with in wax and tar-soaked clothes, tied them to posts that you hoisted on street corners and lighted them so that they during the night were used as torches. Nero chose his gardens to the scene of this bloody abomination. - As a charioteer saw him dressed by the light of this terrible flares to draw the car. -
The surviving Christians collected the remains of so cruel dahingemordeten brothers and put them in the Vatican Hill is located in caves. They extended to and from these caves, and so was the Vatican Cömeterium (cemetery), which the Holy. Apostle Peter, often visited and where he himself later found his resting place.
As long as Nero was alive, the prosecution never stopped completely, the entferten provinces were threatened with it. Peter stayed in Rome and comforted the afflicted flock. In Cömeterium ad Nymphas, also called Ostrianum, he set up his chair, taught here, and christened it, and strengthened the believers. He also sent a letter to the Christian churches in Pontus, Galatia, Cappadocia, Asia Minor and Bythinien, where he had founded earlier Christian communities. In this missive, he urged the faithful to a holy instructed to change and be patient in suffering, they go about their behavior in the persecution, they cheered on the patient endurance of the same for the faith, the church leaders and subordinates reminded them of their mutual obligations and fired all of fortitude to the middle of the persecutions. In this letter gives hl. Apostle of Rome because of the immorality and depravity which prevailed in it, the name "Babylon".
drew nearer and nearer the time, however, should be fulfilled where the words that Jesus spoke on the Sea of Tiberias after his resurrection to Peter, Verily, verily, I tell you, when you were younger, you girdedst yourself, and walkedst wherever you wanted: But when you grow old you will stretch out your hands and another will gird you and carry you where you do not want. " (John 21.18.) Petrus knew the closeness of his death, because in a second letter which he bequeathed to the faithful as a memorial, he says: . I know that my hut is soon broken, as I am revealed to our Lord Jesus Christ " (. II Peter 1: 14) testified in this letter He also that he preached no gratuitous teaching, but speaking as an eyewitness of the glorified life of Jesus Christ was warning against false teachers who will introduce heresies of destruction and warns, in a holy life of the return Christ, contrary to wait.
When Peter wrote his second letter, Paul had already returned to Rome. He had taken the precaution, in a very remote parts of the city, now the Church of S. Paolo alla Regola , formerly "the school of St. . Paul" called to teach the faithful to comfort and strengthen. Despite the persecution, he managed to convert the concubine of the emperor Nero and win its top Schenk for Christ. - But Paul also knew his death. In his last letter to his beloved disciple Timothy, also says he predicted his approaching martyrdom. "I'm going to sacrifice," he writes , "and the time of my Resolution is near. I have fought the good fight, finished the race, kept the faith, the rest I kept the crown, which will give me on that day, the righteous judge, do not have to me only, but also to all who love His coming. " (II Tim. 4, 6-8.)
now attacked the prosecution continued to spread. Emperor Nero, furious about the conversions at his court, decided to destroy the entire Christian community. The Christians, who had received customer that they were looking after Peter, urged by prayers and tears into it, to escape by fleeing the vengeance of the tyrant. a long time he refused, but could not resist the entreaties and supplications, and remembering the words of his master: "When they persecute you in one city, flee to another" , he went on the run. (After the story of St. Ambrose) He went to the Appian Way to leave the city. But, no sooner had he reached the point when he meet Jesus with the cross on the shoulders occurred. Domine, quo vadis? "Lord, where are you going?" asked Peter. "Iterum Veni crucifigi." "I have come to me to be crucified again," was the reply of the Saviour. Peter understood it and came back to share with the brothers all the risk and to die for Jesus. At the point diees event now a small church with the name: Domine, quo vadis? Not
long as Peter was in the middle of the community. He was captured and loaded with chains in the horrible prison Mamertine gworfen. The same is still present. It is built at the foot of the Capitoline hill from enormous stone blocks in the deep. Black, dark, damp, loathsome, it is really two prisons. Originally could only be reached through a hole in the vault in the same, but the upper dungeon has 24 'length, 18' wide and 13 feet high. Under this was the second, still close, low and damp, and was called the Tullische. In this horrible dungeon, totally deprived of light, was St. Apostle thrown. Almost at the same time Peter was also with the St.. Paul out in gangs. As a Roman citizen made before the judge, he was defending himself because he found no one who took care of him, and he succeeded with the grace of God so well that he, as he himself says, "from the jaws of the lion free" , was not charged that the lion in the amphitheater. He was also taken to the Mamertine prison.
searched the two holy apostles and found their solace in prayer. The sufferings which they endured in prison, could not weaken their faith and their zeal, they were happy to follow in the footsteps of their Lord and Master, and for his sake reproach and persecution, and even to suffer death. Peter was looking for in bands to win souls for the Lord. He managed to persuade the two guards of the prison along with 47 fellow prisoners Processus Martiniano and to faith in Jesus. - Again, sprang to his prayer, a source in order to baptize the new converts. The source is still there, it passes over and is never as much as one exhausted, never dry. The newly baptized all suffered martyrdom. -

Just about the underground dungeon Mamertine is the much visited church S. Pietro in Carcere and this church is the church of S. Giuseppe de 'Falegnami .

See also: " Il Carcer Mamertinus "

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